國際經貿法治瞭望｜史曉麗、郭威：歐盟以綠色轉型為名對“新三樣”產業實施大規模專向補貼

2024年11月10日 20:24　來源：中國政法大學WTO法律研究中心微信公眾號

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　　作者｜史曉麗郭威中國政法大學國際法學院

歐盟以綠色轉型為名對“新三樣”產業實施大規模專向補貼

前言

　　2024年10月29日歐委會發布公告，自10月30日起對自中國進口的電動汽車征收反補貼稅。實際上，[1]歐盟及其成員國近年來以支持綠色轉型和落后地區發展等名義，通過直接贈款、稅收優惠、低息貸款、貸款擔保、價格補貼等方式，大力補貼“新三樣”產業(鋰電池、光伏產品和電動汽車)，以提高全球競爭力和搶占新興產業制高點。盡管歐盟制定了限制成員國提供國家援助的規則，但也設置了名目繁多的豁免條款，允許各成員國實施具有專向性和扭曲性的補貼。歐盟還以自身名義設立多項支持性基金，直接提供贈款。歐盟雙渠道補貼機制(歐盟基金和成員國國家援助)向許多“新三樣”項目提供了全額資助或者覆蓋項目絕大多數成本的高額資助，補貼力度非常大。以太陽能發電產業為例，歐盟在2022年通過各項基金提供的補貼累計高達250億歐元。[2]

　　一、歐盟設立多項支持基金為“新三樣”產業提供大量補貼

　　歐盟以推動綠色轉型、落后地區發展等名義設立了至少十一項支持性基金，為“新三樣”產業提供補貼，這些基金包括“復蘇和韌性基金”“地平線歐洲”“創新基金”“歐洲區域發展基金”“連接歐洲基金”“公正過渡基金”“凝聚力基金”“投資歐盟基金”“歐洲社會基金”“歐洲農業農村發展基金”以及“現代化基金”。

　　(一)歐盟基金向多個“新三樣”項目提供全額補貼或者金額超過項目預算半數的大額補貼

　　在歐盟各項基金中，有五大基金(復蘇和韌性基金、地平線歐洲、創新基金、歐洲區域發展基金和連接歐洲基金)經常以贈款和貸款形式為大量“新三樣”項目提供全額補貼或者金額超過項目預算一半的大額補貼。

　　“復蘇和韌性基金”(RRF)、“地平線歐洲”(Horizon Europe)、“創新基金”(Innovation Fund)向“新三樣”產業提供的補貼最多。RRF主要通過提供贈款和優惠貸款對綠色和數字化轉型等領域提供補貼。據統計，到2024年4月，RRF已提供879億歐元用以支持零排放或低排放車輛等可持續交通項目。[3]“地平線歐洲”旨在促進研發和創新，以支持綠色轉型。該基金在2021-2027年的總預算為935億歐元，其中2021-2022年已提供2273.5萬歐元補貼。[4]“創新基金”主要是向低碳技術創新項目提供補貼，資金主要來源于歐盟碳排放交易收入。2021-2030年，該基金將提供至少400億歐元贈款。[5]

　　“歐洲區域發展基金”(ERDF)和“連接歐洲基金”(CEF)也向“新三樣”產業提供大量補貼。“歐洲區域發展基金”主要資助落后地區進行產業結構調整和轉型，以縮小與歐盟其他地區的發展差距。2021-2027年，該基金將重點資助有助于綠色低碳轉型的項目，[6]計劃撥款1043億歐元補貼能源轉型和可持續城市交通等項目。[7]“連接歐洲基金”主要支持在交通、能源和數字服務領域發展高性能、可持續和高效互聯的跨歐洲網絡。[8]2021-2022年，該基金向18個能源項目提供了16.6億歐元贈款(包括5個電力項目、4個二氧化碳項目、3個天然氣項目、1個智能電網項目、5個跨境可再生能源項目)。[9]

　　(二)歐盟基金對電池產業的整體補貼力度最大

　　電池產業是電動汽車的上游，歐盟基金對其提供了大量直接贈款。在“新三樣”產業中，電池行業獲得歐盟基金補貼以及各成員國國家援助的項目數量最多。例如，“地平線歐洲”在2014-2020年向電池產業的307個研發項目提供了約8.73億歐元贈款，“創新基金”在2021-2022年向電池產業的8個項目提供了約1.61億歐元贈款，“歐洲區域發展基金”向14個成員國的459個電池相關項目提供了約3.19億歐元贈款。[10]

　　在電池研發方面，“地平線歐洲”提供了大量撥款，并且對很多項目提供全額補貼。例如，該基金在2015年5月向法國、西班牙、比利時、盧森堡、瑞士、德國合作的新一代鋰電池開發項目撥款約689萬歐元(項目預算725萬歐元)；[11]2020年1月向法國、意大利、波蘭、西班牙、比利時、斯洛文尼亞、德國與烏克蘭合作的全固態鋰電池研發項目提供約781萬歐元的全額資助；[12]2020年2月向法國、意大利、奧地利、瑞士、瑞典、德國與英國合作的電動汽車鋰電池研發項目提供1025萬歐元的全額資助；[13]2020年5月向法國、意大利、荷蘭、西班牙、奧地利、比利時、德國與土耳其合作的硫化物基全固態鋰電池(用于電動汽車)研發計劃提供789萬歐元的全額補貼；[14]2023年1月向法國、意大利、西班牙、奧地利、比利時、葡萄牙、斯洛文尼亞、德國、挪威合作的新一代鋰電池研發項目提供799萬歐元的全額資助。[15]

　　在電池制造方面，“歐洲區域發展基金”提供了大量撥款。例如，該基金在2018年9月向德國能源與環境化學中心的“未來電池項目”撥款80萬歐元用于制造有機物電池(項目預算101萬歐元)，[16]2019年10月向德國“漢堡能源轉型和清潔空氣計劃”(項目預算6150萬歐元)撥款778萬歐元用于將集裝箱運輸車改造為電池車。[17]

　　在電池回收方面，“創新基金”提供了大量全額資助。例如，該基金在2022年4月向法國ERAMET公司的電動汽車鋰電池回收項目提供了6755萬歐元的全額補貼。[18]

　　(三)歐盟基金對光伏產業單個項目的補貼金額最大

　　在歐盟，具備自然條件的成員國大力發展光伏產業。雖然歐盟光伏項目在數量上相對較少，但是所需資金規模龐大。歐盟基金為其提供了大量全額補貼以及金額超過項目預算一半的高額補貼，補貼形式以直接贈款為主，兼有優惠貸款等支持方式。例如在2022年，歐盟各項基金向太陽能發電產業提供的補貼總額高達250億歐元，高于風能發電補貼和生物質能燃料發電補貼。[19]

　　在光伏技術研發方面，“創新基金”和“地平線歐洲”提供了大量全額補貼、高額贈款與優惠貸款。例如“創新基金”在2021年1月向意大利國家電力公司提供了1.17億歐元贈款，用于開發高性能光伏組件試點生產線。[20]“地平線歐洲”在2018年4月向法國、意大利、西班牙、瑞士、德國合作的公用光伏研發項目撥款940萬歐元(項目預算1114萬歐元)，[21]2022年10月向荷蘭、西班牙、瑞典、瑞士、希臘、德國合作的超薄膜光伏技術和柔性光伏電池開發項目提供293萬歐元的全額贈款，[22]2022年12月向法國、意大利、荷蘭、葡萄牙、瑞典、瑞士、德國合作的鈣鈦礦光伏設施研發項目提供511萬歐元的全額資助。[23]

　　在光伏設施安裝方面，歐盟基金同樣提供全額支持或大比例支持。例如，“復蘇和韌性基金”為意大利多個光伏設施安裝項目提供全額支持，包括2022年7月向農業光伏安裝項目提供15億歐元的全額贈款，[24]2023年7月向光伏電池生產商3Sun公司的生產設施擴建項目提供8950萬歐元贈款。[25]

　　(四)歐盟基金對電動汽車產業的資助從研發、生產延伸至消費者補貼

　　歐盟基金對電動汽車產業至少提供了220億歐元以贈款為主要形式的補貼，其中“復蘇和韌性基金”(RRF)、“地平線歐洲”(Horizon Europe)、“歐洲區域發展基金”(ERDF)和“連接歐洲基金”(CEF)提供的補貼全面覆蓋電動汽車研發、制造、配套充電設施安裝和消費等環節。

　　例如，“復蘇和韌性基金”向西班牙的多個電動汽車項目提供巨額補貼。2021年12月該基金向西班牙“電動和聯網汽車行業經濟復蘇和轉型戰略性計劃”(PERTE VEC)撥款15.5億歐元(項目預算30億歐元)以支持電動汽車和聯網汽車全產業鏈研發，[26]2023年5月和7月再次向西班牙該項目提供8.37億歐元[27]和5.287億歐元贈款。在消費環節，法國從2023年起向電動汽車消費者提供相當于電動汽車含稅價格27%的“生態補貼”，“復蘇和韌性基金”為其撥款9.85億歐元。[28]2021年西班牙的“高效和可持續出行項目III”(MOVES III)獲得“復蘇和韌性基金”提供的1.5億歐元用于補貼電動汽車消費和充電設施安裝。[29]2021年，“復蘇和韌性基金”向德國提供55億歐元補貼以支持私人電動汽車、公共汽車和軌道汽車消費和充電基礎設施安裝，[30]2023年又向德國個人購置零排放汽車撥款27.64億歐元。[31]

　　“地平線歐洲”在2015年6月為歐盟部分成員國(法國、意大利、捷克、德國、英國)合作的電動汽車能源系統優化項目提供800萬歐元全額資助；[32]2016年10月，意大利、波蘭、荷蘭等10個歐盟成員國與白俄羅斯、土耳其、以色列、歐委會和歐洲綠色汽車倡議協會共同設立“ERA-NET”基金以促進歐洲電動汽車產業發展，“地平線歐洲”為其提供626萬歐元。[33]2019年“地平線歐洲”向法國、奧地利、捷克、德國共同參與的電動汽車動力系統和關鍵零件制造技術的研發計劃“1000km PLUS”撥款540萬歐元，[34]2022年7月向法國、意大利、西班牙、德國和土耳其合作的電動汽車電源轉換系統改進計劃提供599萬歐元全額資助，[35]2024年1月向法國、意大利等11個歐盟成員國和挪威、英國合作的電動汽車全流程制造技術改進項目提供1138萬歐元全額資助。[36]

　　“歐洲區域發展基金”在2022年11月為意大利、羅馬尼亞和西班牙共同部署的電動汽車大功率充電基礎設施網絡項目撥款2138萬歐元，[37]2019年2月向西班牙“高效和可持續的交通激勵計劃”(MOVES)提供1500萬歐元補貼，[38]2020年向西班牙項目預算1億歐元的MOVES II計劃提供部分資金，[39]用于補貼電動汽車消費和充電基礎設施安裝。[40]

　　二、歐盟成員國通過本國公共資金為“新三樣”提供大量國家援助

　　(一)歐盟設置多項國家援助豁免情形以大量補貼“新三樣”產業

　　根據《歐盟運行條約》第107條第1款的規定，扭曲或可能扭曲競爭并對成員國之間的貿易造成影響的國家援助構成與歐盟內部市場不相容，各成員國不得提供。

　　但是該條第2款和第3款為該禁令設定了多種例外，只要滿足例外條件，即便有扭曲作用，也構成與歐盟內部市場相容或者視為相容，各成員國就可以提供此類國家援助。例如，為“歐洲共同利益重要項目”(IPCEI)提供的國家援助以及為特定經濟活動提供的國家援助等，就屬于此類可以提供的國家援助。其中“歐洲共同利益重要項目”是指可以極大促進歐盟產業和經濟增長、就業、綠色和數字化轉型以及提高競爭力的項目。每個IPCEI項目至少應由四個成員國共同制定實施計劃并向歐委會通報，經歐委會批準后方可實施。

　　《歐盟運行條約》第108條規定，各成員國應向歐委會通報擬實施的國家援助，在歐委會做出最終審查和批準決定前不得實施。但是，該條約授權歐盟理事會和歐委會規定無需通報即可實施的國家援助類型。為此，歐委會發布了《一般通用豁免條例》和《微量援助條例》。《一般通用豁免條例》規定成員國無需向歐委會通報即可實施區域援助、中小企業援助、環保援助、研發和創新援助、培訓援助、寬帶基礎設施援助、地方基礎設施援助、歐洲區域合作項目援助和與“投資歐盟基金”所支持金融產品有關的援助。《微量援助條例》規定成員國在3個財政年度內對每個企業提供的不超過30萬歐元的微量援助無需向歐委會通報。

　　歐委會還發布了《臨時性危機和過渡框架》，旨在擴充《歐盟運行條約》第107條所述“視為與歐盟內部市場相容”的國家援助范圍。經歐委會批準，成員國可以通過贈款、稅收優惠、貸款擔保、優惠貸款、預付款等形式提供某些國家援助，其中包括與儲能和推廣可再生能源有關的投資援助和運營援助；與電氣化和促進工業生產脫碳有關的援助；為減少電力消耗提供的援助；為加快向凈零經濟轉型向相關戰略產業提供的投資援助。

　　(二)歐盟成員國普遍補貼電池產業并輻射眾多電池相關企業

　　歐盟成員國為“歐洲共同利益重要項目”(IPCEI)下的兩期電池產業研發項目累計提供了超過60億歐元的補貼，為區域援助計劃下的六個項目提供了累計5.72億歐元的補貼，補貼形式包括直接贈款、稅收優惠與貸款擔保。[41]

　　例如，2019年12月歐委會批準法國、意大利、波蘭等七個歐盟成員國建立第一期電池IPCEI項目，向17家企業提供總額高達約32億歐元的直接贈款，批準的國家援助金額分別是意大利5.7億歐元，波蘭2.4億歐元，法國9.6億歐元，比利時8000萬歐元，芬蘭3000萬歐元，瑞典5000萬歐元、德國12.5億歐元。[42]在2021年1月歐委會批準的第二期電池IPCEI中，法國、意大利等12個參與國共計向42個受補貼企業提供總額約29億歐元的國家援助，其中波蘭、斯洛伐克、克羅地亞和希臘提供的部分國家援助還使用了“歐洲區域發展基金”提供的資金。各成員國在第二期電池IPCEI下提供的國家援助以贈款為主，金額分別是意大利6億歐元，法國、克羅地亞和斯洛伐克各1億歐元，波蘭2000萬歐元，瑞典5000萬歐元，奧地利5000萬歐元，比利時和希臘各4000萬歐元，芬蘭1000萬歐元，西班牙100萬歐元，德國15億歐元。比利時還以“應償還預付款”形式向相關研發機構提供了國家援助。[43]

　　法國和德國還向電池產業提供大額專向補貼。例如在法國，截至2023年5月，“法國2030計劃”向電池研發項目(PEPR)提供了1900萬歐元國家援助，“BATMAT計劃”為80個成熟電池項目提供了1500萬歐元國家援助，“電池創新解決方案和技術計劃”為20個項目提供了7900萬歐元國家援助，“材料回收創新解決方案計劃”(RRR)提供了3000萬歐元國家援助，向關鍵金屬投資基金注入5億歐元。[44]2024年1月，歐委會批準了德國對Northvolt公司9.02億歐元的國家援助以支持其建設清潔電池工廠和大規模生產電池，該補貼包括7億歐元的直接贈款和2.02億歐元貸款擔保。[45]

　　(三)歐盟成員國對光伏產業補貼期限最長并且單項補貼金額較大

　　在歐盟，法國和意大利等成員國為光伏電站建設和光伏發電項目提供長達20年的價格補貼，累計補貼金額至少達到236億歐元。例如，2017年9月，歐委會批準法國以政府采購和電價補貼形式提供可再生能源發電國家援助，其中包含兩項為期20年、總額不超過46億歐元的光伏發電補貼。[46]2021年7月，歐委會批準法國擬實施的305億歐元可再生能源發電國家援助，其中光伏產業電價補貼超過116億歐元。[47]2021年8月，歐委會批準法國擬實施的57億歐元國家援助，補貼方式是允許建筑物上峰值功率不超過500千瓦的小型光伏裝置在20年內適用上網電價。[48]2023年11月，歐委會批準了意大利擬向農業光伏電站建設項目提供17億歐元的國家援助計劃，國家援助方式包括使用歐盟“復蘇和韌性基金”提供的11億歐元投資贈款以及5.6億歐元并為期20年的雙向差價合約或上網電價補貼，價格補貼方式依據受補貼方的裝機容量確定。[49]

　　意大利等成員國還為安裝光伏裝置提供稅收優惠。例如，2020年5月，意大利制定“110%超級補貼”政策，為進行房屋節能改造的意大利公民提供相當于改造費用110%的免稅額度，免稅方式包括所得稅抵免、由供應商承擔全部費用并獲得免稅額度、使用免稅額度抵扣銀行或保險公司提供的貸款。[50]其中，安裝住宅光伏系統最高可獲得4.8萬歐元稅收抵免。[51]從2024年起，意大利超級補貼政策的免稅比例下調至70%。[52]

　　在歐盟，如果投資項目旨在生產光伏電池以及相關零部件，也可以獲得直接贈款。例如，歐委會先后在2024年9月17日、9月27日和10月11日批準波蘭12億歐元、[53]葡萄牙10億歐元、[54]盧森堡5.2億歐元的國家援助計劃，[55]用于支持戰略設備生產方面的投資，包括電池、光伏電池板、風力渦輪機、熱泵、電解槽、碳捕獲的使用和儲存設備以及相關重要零部件和關鍵原材料的生產，以加快向凈零經濟轉型。[56]2024年10月3日，歐委會批準波蘭12億歐元國家援助計劃，允許補貼儲電設施投資，以促進向凈零經濟轉型。[57]

　　(四)歐盟成員國普遍利用各項補貼政策刺激電動汽車消費

　　到2023年，歐盟27個成員國均制定了至少一項電動汽車消費補貼政策，補貼形式以稅收優惠和贈款為主，僅德國就提供了100億歐元補貼。[58]

　　在稅收優惠方面，法國、西班牙和德國等成員國為電動汽車消費提供登記稅、個人所得稅、流通稅等多種稅收優惠。例如法國對純電和混電汽車減免50%的登記費和100%的車牌注冊費。[59]西班牙則在2023年6月對購置電動汽車和充電設備提供15%的個人所得稅減免，其中電動汽車的扣稅基數不超過2萬歐元，充電設備的扣稅基數不超過4000歐元。[60]在德國，2012年至2023年至少兩次延長電動汽車的機動車免稅期限，2016年還根據“政府電動汽車計劃”為電動汽車提供為期10年的流通稅豁免。[61]

　　贈款是歐盟成員國鼓勵電動汽車消費的另一重要手段。例如2020年5月，法國開始實施80億歐元的“汽車行業振興計劃”，國家援助范圍包括電動汽車消費、生產和充電裝置部署。[62]其中電動汽車消費領域的國家援助形式是向購車消費者發放生態補貼或者向購買電動或混電汽車以代替柴油或汽油車的消費者發放換車補貼。[63]在地方層面，2019年以來，巴黎都市圈的131個城市均為購置電動汽車提供了不同額度的國家援助。[64]在德國，2016年5月制定了“政府電動汽車計劃”，為購買純電和混合動力汽車的消費者提供12億歐元“環境獎金”，以及為擴大充電基礎設施提供3億歐元補貼。“環境獎金”由聯邦政府和汽車行業共同出資，其中半數發放給生產商以便其降低汽車售價，另一半以贈款形式發放給消費者。[65]2020-2021年，德國再次為購置電動汽車和氫電混合能源汽車提供22億歐元“環境獎金”，并投入12億歐元國家援助用于將公共汽車更新為電動汽車。[66]

　　充足和便利的充電設施是促進電動汽車消費的重要環節，因此法國、德國等歐盟成員國為充電設施安裝提供了大量直接贈款和稅收優惠。例如法國在2016年通過政府制定的“Advenir計劃”至少提供了3.2億歐元贈款用于安裝充電設施。[67]法國還實施增值稅優惠和稅收抵免政策，其中對家用充電設施的增值稅為5.5%，對在樓齡超過2年的建筑物上安裝充電裝置的增值稅為10%，對在樓齡不滿2年的建筑物上安裝充電裝置的增值稅為20%，2021-2023年購買和安裝充電裝置還能享受最高300歐元的專項稅收抵免。[68]在德國，2022年7月建立了聯邦氣候與轉型基金(“KTF”)，用于推動2023-2026年的能源轉型和氣候保護。[69]2022年10月，德國交通部制定了涵蓋68項具體措施的充電基礎設施補貼計劃，由該基金提供全額支持，資金規模為6.3億歐元。2023年6月，德國交通部撥款9億歐元用于完善該補貼計劃，其中5億歐元用于支持私人充電站建設，4億歐元用于商用充電站建設。[70]

　　三、歐盟“新三樣”產業巨額補貼取得成效并進一步加深市場扭曲

　　在推動綠色轉型和落后地區發展等名義下，歐盟多個基金和各成員國國內資金為實施補貼提供了雙重資金保障，贈款、稅收減免、價格補貼、貸款優惠等補貼形式互為補充，共同服務于歐盟在全球“新三樣”領域搶占發展先機、塑造領導力的目標。

　　花樣繁多的補貼使歐盟“新三樣”產業實現了快速協同發展。在電池產業，2014-2020年歐盟預算至少提供了17億歐元的撥款和貸款擔保，2019年以來各成員國僅以支持“歐洲共同利益重要項目”和區域發展的名義就提供了總額累計超過65.7億歐元的國家援助。[71]在雙重補貼的支持下，歐盟已擁有10家超級電池工廠和20個在建工廠，電池產能可以滿足三分之二的歐盟市場需求。[72]2022-2023年，歐盟鋰電池出口額在全球出口總額的占比從28.2%上升至30.3%。[73]在光伏領域，歐盟基金提供的補貼和各成員國的國家援助至少達到86億歐元和236億歐元。這些巨額補貼使歐盟在2021-2023年的光伏裝機容量年增長率均超過40%，[74]2022-2023年歐盟太陽能電池板出口額增長19%，出口量增長37%。[75]在電動汽車領域，歐盟基金提供的補貼和各成員國提供的國家援助至少達到220億歐元和108億歐元。在補貼政策推動下，歐盟到2023年已擁有超過63萬個公共充電點，2023年直流汽車充電裝置增長率達到84%。[76]2022年歐盟電動汽車出口金額(223億歐元)同比上漲100%，與2019年相比增長400%。[77]

　　總之，歐盟“新三樣”補貼名目繁多，補貼對象具有專向性，補貼力度大，許多項目獲得了全額補貼或者金額超過項目預算一半的補貼。這些補貼已見成效，對歐盟“新三樣”產業的制造與出口起到了重要促進作用。隨著歐盟“新三樣”產業補貼規模和范圍的不斷擴大，市場扭曲作用將進一步加深。

　　(本文研究助理：符馨予，崔蕓菲，黃旖璇，張倩茹)

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　　[46] European Commission, State aid: Commission endorses four support schemes to deploy more than 7.5 gigawatts capacity in renewable energy in France, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_17_3581; European Commission, Aide d’État SA.46552 (2017/NN) — France Soutien par appels d'offres au développement des installations de production d'électricité à partir de l'énergie solaire Aide d’État SA.47753 (2017/NN) — France Soutien par appels d'offres au développement des installations de production d'électricité à partir de l'énergie solaire, implantées sur bâtiments Aide d’État SA.48066 (2017/NN) — France Appel d'offres trisannuel pour l'éolien Terrestre Aide d’État SA.48238 (2017/N) — France Soutien par appels d'offres au développement des installations de production d'électricité à partir de l'énergie solaire photovoltaïque ou éolienne Terrestre, https://microeconomicevaluation.jrc.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-12/SA50272_DEC.pdf.

　　[47] European Commission, State aid: Commission approves ？0.5 billion French scheme to support production of electricity from renewable energy sources, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_3922.

　　[48] European Commission, State aid: Commission approves ？.7 billion French scheme to support production of electricity from small solar installations on buildings, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_4424；European Commission, Aide d’État SA.61902 (2021/N) – France Soutien tarifaire aux installations sur bâtiment utilisant l'énergie solaire 2021-2026 https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202143/SA_61902_B0339E7C-0000-CD6D-A658-E8078EE59425_141_1.pdf.

　　[49] European Commission, Commission approves ？.7 billion Italian State aid scheme under the Recovery and Resilience Facility to support agrivoltaic installations, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_5451; European Commission, Subject: State Aid SA.107161 (2023/N) – Italy – RRF - Support for the promotion of agrivoltaic installations, https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202351/SA_107161_80CE688C-0100-C9DF-B4C3-FBF1C906FE1B_54_1.pdf.

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　　[54] European Commission, Commission approves ？ billion Portuguese State aid scheme to support investments in strategic sectors necessary to foster the transition to a net-zero economy. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_4822.

　　[55] European Commission, Commission approves ？20 million Luxembourgish State aid schemes to foster the transition to a net-zero economy. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_5025.

　　[56] European Commission, State Aid SA.109581 (2024/N) – Poland TCTF: Aid for investment projects in sectors strategic for the transition towards a net-zero economy.

　　[57] European Commission, Commission approves ？.2 billion Polish State aid scheme to support investments in electricity storage facilities to foster the transition to a net-zero economy. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_4985.

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　　[59] European Commission, European Alternative Fuels Observatory- France, https://alternative-fuels-observatory.ec.europa.eu/transport-mode/road/france/incentives-legislations.

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　　[61]Analysis of the recovery and resilience plan of Germany Accompanying the document Proposal for a COUNCIL IMPLEMENTING DECISION amending Implementing Decision (EU) (ST 10158/21 and ST 10158/21 ADD 1) on the approval of the assessment of the recovery and resilience plan for Germany, https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/1aee8883-f34d-4526-ba13-98d591254eb5_en?filename=SWD_2023_371_1_EN_autre_document_travail_service_part1_v4.pdf.

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　　[63] Élysée, Plus verte et plus compétitive : notre plan de soutien à la filière automobile, https://www.elysee.fr/emmanuel-macron/2020/05/26/plus-verte-et-plus-competitive-notre-plan-de-soutien-a-la-filiere-automobile.

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EU’s Specified and Massive Subsidies for “New Trio” Industry Under Green Transition

　　Author | Shi Xiaoli, Guo Wei, China University of Political Science and Law

　　Preface

　　On October 29, 2024, the European Commission issued a notice imposing countervailing duties on electric vehicles imported from China starting from October 30. In fact, Official European Union (EU) statistics[1] reveal that in recent years, the EU and its member states have heavily subsidized the “new trio” industries—lithium batteries, photovoltaic products, and electric vehicles—over recent years through grants, tax breaks, low-interest loans, loan guarantees, and price subsidies. These measures, justified by green transition and regional development goals, aim to enhance global competitiveness and secure a lead in emerging industries. Although the EU has established rules to limit state aid from member countries, it has also introduced numerous exemption clauses that allow for specified and distortionary subsidies by member states. Additionally, the EU has set up several supportive funds to provide direct grants under its own name. Through its dual-channel subsidy mechanism (EU funds and member state aid)， the EU provides either full or high-cost coverage for many “new trio” projects, resulting in substantial funding support. For example, in 2022, the EU provided a total of EUR 25 billion in subsidies to the solar power industry through various funds.[2]

　　I. The EU offers extensive subsidies to the “new trio” industries via multiple funds

　　Under the banner of promoting green transition and supporting the development of disadvantaged regions, the EU has established at least 11 support funds to subsidize the “new trio” industries. These funds include the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF)， Horizon Europe, Innovation Fund, Just Transition Fund (JTF)， European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)， Cohesion Fund, InvestEU Fund, European Social Fund (ESF)， Connecting Europe Facility (CEF)， European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD)， and the Modernisation Fund (MF).

　　A. EU funds provide full or majority subsidies for multiple “new trio” projects

　　Among the various EU funds, five major funds—the RRF, Horizon Europe, Innovation Fund, ERDF, and CEF—often provide full subsidies or substantial grants, covering up to half or more of the project costs for numerous “new trio” initiatives through grants and loans.

　　The RRF, Horizon Europe and Innovation Fund have provided the largest subsidies to the “new trio” sectors. The RRF primarily provides subsidies for areas such as green and digital transitions through grants and preferential loans. As of April 2024, the RRF has provided EUR 87.9 billion to support sustainable transportation projects, including zero- or low-emission vehicles.[3] The Horizon Europe aims at promoting research and innovation to support the green transition. The fund has a total budget of EUR 93.5 billion for the 2021-2027 period, with subsidies amounting to EUR 22.735 million already provided from 2021 to 2022.[4] The Innovation Fund primarily provides subsidies to low-carbon technology innovation projects, with funding mainly sourced from EU carbon emissions trading revenue. From 2021 to 2030, this fund will grant at least EUR 40 billion.[5]

　　The ERDF and the CEF also provide full or large grant subsidies to the “new trio” sectors. The ERDF primarily finances structural adjustments and transformations in disadvantaged regions to reduce the development gap with other EU areas. From 2021 to 2027, it focuses on promoting a green and low-emission transition,[6] allocating EUR 104.3 billion to subsidize projects such as energy transition and sustainable urban mobility.[7] The CEF mainly supports the development of high-performance, sustainable, and interconnected trans-European networks across transport, energy, and digital service sectors.[8] From 2021 to 2022, the fund awarded EUR 1.66 billion in grants to 18 energy projects, including 5 electricity projects, 4 carbon dioxide projects, 3 natural gas projects, 1 smart grid project, and 5 cross-border renewable energy projects.[9]

　　B. The EU funds provide most subsidies to the battery industry

　　As an upstream sector of electric vehicles, the battery industry has received substantial direct grants from EU funds. Within the “new trio” industries, battery projects receive the largest share of subsidies from EU funds and state aid, with many fully subsidized or receiving over half of their budget. Examples include the Horizon Europe granting approximately EUR 873 million to 307 battery R&D projects from 2014 to 2020, the Innovation Fund awarding EUR 161 million to 8 battery projects from 2021 to 2022, and the ERDF allocating EUR 319 million to 459 battery-related projects across 14 member states.[10]

　　In the field of battery R&D, the Horizon Europe has provided substantial funding, with many projects receiving full subsidies. In May 2015, it allocated EUR 6.89 million to a project developing a new generation of lithium-ion batteries, collaboratively undertaken by France, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, and Germany (with a project budget of EUR 7.25 million).[11] In January 2020, it provided a full subsidy of EUR 7.81 million to an all-solid-state battery R&D project involving France, Italy, Poland, Spain, Belgium, Slovenia, Germany, and Ukraine.[12] In February 2020, it allocated EUR 10.25 million to electric vehicle lithium battery R&D projects jointly conducted by France, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, Germany, and the UK.[13] In May 2020, it granted EUR 7.89 million to a sulfide-based all-solid-state lithium battery R&D project for electric vehicles, with participation from France, Italy, Spain, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and Turkey.[14] In January 2023, it allocated a full subsidy of EUR 7.99 million to a next-generation lithium battery R&D project, collaboratively carried out by France, Italy, Spain, Austria, Belgium, Portugal, Slovenia, Germany, and Norway.[15]

　　In the field of battery manufacturing, the ERDF has provided substantial funding. In September 2018, the fund allocated EUR 800,000 to The Batteries for the Future project at the Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry (CEEC) in Jena, Germany, to support the production of organic batteries (with a project budget of EUR 1.01 million).[16] In October 2019, it provided EUR 7.78 million to Germany’s “Energy Transition and Cleaner Air in Hamburg: HHLA’s container transporters run on smart batteries instead of diesel” project (with a project budget of EUR 61.5 million)， aimed at converting container transport vehicles into battery-powered trucks.[17]

　　In the field of battery recycling, the Innovation Fund has provided substantial full subsidies. In April 2022, the fund financed EUR 67.55 million to the French company ERAMET for its electric vehicle lithium battery recycling project.[18]

　　C. EU funds provide the largest subsidies for individual projects in the photovoltaic industry

　　In the EU, member states with favorable natural conditions are actively developing the photovoltaic industry. Although the number of photovoltaic subsidies is relatively low, the required funding is substantial. The EU funds provide generous subsidies that often cover all or more than half of the programs’ budget, mainly through direct grants, along with preferential loans, price subsidies, and other support mechanisms. For instance, in 2022, EU funds provided a total of EUR 25 billion in subsidies to the solar power industry, exceeding the subsidies allocated to wind power and biomass energy generation.[19]

　　The R&D of photovoltaic technology has received substantial full subsidies, large grants, and preferential loans from the Innovation Fund and Horizon Europe. In January 2021, the Innovation Fund granted EUR 117 million to Enel in Italy to develop a pilot production line for high-performance photovoltaic modules.[20] In April 2018, the Horizon Europe allocated EUR 9.4 million to a public photovoltaic R&D project jointly undertaken by France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and Germany (with a project budget of EUR 11.14 million).[21] In October 2022, it allocated EUR 2.93 million in full funding to a project on ultrathin-film photovoltaic technology and flexible solar cells, cooperatively developed by the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Greece, and Germany.[22] In December 2022, it provided a full grant of EUR 5.11 million to a perovskite photovoltaics R&D project participated by France, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany.[23]

　　The installation of photovoltaic facility is also heavily subsidized by EU funds. For example, the RRF fully funded several photovoltaic installation projects in Italy, including a full subsidy of EUR 1.5 billion granted in July 2022 for an agrivoltaic installation project[24] and an EUR 89.5 million grant in July 2023 to support the expansion of 3Sun’s photovoltaic cell production facilities.[25]

　　D. EU funds extend support for EV industry from R&D and production to consumer subsidies

　　The EU has allocated at least EUR 22 billion to support the electric vehicle sector, mainly through grants. Subsidies from the RRF, Horizon Europe, ERDF and CEF effectively cover all stages of the electric vehicle sector, including R&D, manufacturing, charging infrastructure installation, and consumer support.

　　The RRF has allocated substantial subsidies to several electric vehicle projects in Spain. In December 2021, it provided EUR 1.55 billion to Spain’s “Measures of encouragement of transformative project the value chain of VEC” (PERTE VEC) program, with a total budget of EUR 3 billion, to support R&D across the entire value chain.[26] In May and July 2023, additional grants of EUR 837 million[27] and EUR 528.7 million were given to the same project. In the consumer sector, France began offering an “ecological bonus” of 27% of the VAT-inclusive price of electric vehicles from 2023, with EUR 985 million allocated from the RRF.[28] In 2021, Spain’s “Incentives Program for Efficient and Sustainable Mobility III” (MOVES III; in Spanish, Programa de Incentivos a la Movilidad Eficiente y Sostenible) program received EUR 150 million from the RRF to support electric vehicle purchases and charging infrastructure installation.[29] In 2021, the RRF also allocated EUR 5.5 billion to Germany for private electric vehicle, bus, and train consumption, and charging infrastructure.[30] In 2023, it provided EUR 2.764 billion to support the purchase of zero-emission vehicles by individuals in Germany.[31]

　　The Horizon Europe program provided a full subsidy of EUR 8 million in June 2015 for an electric vehicle energy system optimization project undertaken by several EU member states, including France, Italy, the Czech Republic, Germany, and the UK.[32] In October 2016, 10 EU member states, including Italy, Poland, and the Netherlands, partnered with Belarus, Turkey, Israel, the European Commission, and the European Green Vehicles Initiative Association (EGVIA) to establish the ERA-NET fund, aimed at promoting the development of the European electric vehicle industry. The Horizon Europe provided EUR 6.26 million for this initiative.[33] In 2019, the Horizon Europe allocated EUR 5.4 million to the “1000km PLUS” program, a joint initiative by France, Austria, the Czech Republic, and Germany, focused on developing electric vehicle powertrains and key components manufacturing technologies.[34] In July 2022, the fund fully supported the power electronics conversion innovation program, with a budget of EUR 5.99 million, jointly undertaken by France, Italy, Spain, Germany, and Turkey.[35] In January 2024, the fund provided a full subsidy of EUR 11.38 million to an electric vehicle full-process manufacturing technology improvement project, jointly undertaken by France, Italy, and 8 other EU member states, along with Norway and the UK.[36]

　　In November 2022, the ERDF allocated EUR 21.38 million to a high-power electric vehicle charging infrastructure network project jointly deployed by Italy, Romania, and Spain.[37] In February 2019, it provided a EUR 15 million subsidy to Spain’s MOVES program,[38] and in 2020, it contributed partial funding to the MOVES II program, which had a budget of EUR 100 million,[39] to support electric vehicle consumption and the installation of charging infrastructure.[40]

　　II. EU Member States provide significant state aid for the “new trio” through State resources

　　A. Member States apply state aid exemption rules to significantly subsidize the “new trio” industries

　　Article 107(1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) states that any aid which distorts or threatens to distort competition and affects trade between Member States is incompatible with the internal market and is thus prohibited.

　　However, Article 107(2) and (3) provide various exceptions to this prohibition. When these conditions are met, state aid is considered compatible, or deemed compatible, with the internal market, allowing member states to offer such aid. Examples include aid for “Important Projects of Common European Interest” (IPCEI) and aid for specific economic activities. The IPCEIs refer to projects that significantly advance EU industry, economic growth, employment, green and digital transitions, and competitiveness. Each IPCEI must be jointly developed by at least 4 member states and notified to the European Commission for approval before implementation.

　　Article 108 of the TFEU mandates that member states notify the European Commission of planned state aid, which may not be implemented until the Commission completes its review and grants approval. However, the Treaty authorizes the EU Council and the Commission to specify types of aid that do not require notification. To this end, the Commission issued the General Block Exemption Regulation (GBER) and the De Minimis Regulation. Under the GBER, member states may provide regional aid, SME aid, environmental aid, R&D and innovation aid, training aid, broadband infrastructure aid, local infrastructure aid, support for European territorial cooperation projects, and aid related to financial products backed by the InvestEU Fund without notifying the Commission. The De Minimis Regulation exempts from notification any aid of up to EUR 300,000 per enterprise over 3 fiscal years.

　　Additionally, the Commission introduced the Temporary Crisis and Transition Framework to expand the scope of aid deemed “compatible with the internal market” under Article 107 of the TFEU. With Commission approval, member states may provide certain aid through grants, tax incentives, loan guarantees, concessional loans, advance payments, and more. This includes investment and operational aid for energy storage and renewable energy promotion, aid for electrification and industrial decarbonization, aid for reducing electricity consumption, and investment aid for strategic industries to accelerate the transition to a net-zero economy.

　　B. Member States widely subsidize the battery sector benefiting a large number of battery-related enterprises

　　EU member states have allocated over EUR 6 billion in subsidies for two phases of battery R&D projects under the IPCEI. They have also provided a total of EUR 572 million to six regional aid projects through direct grants, tax incentives, and loan guarantees.[41]

　　For example, In June 2019, 7 EU Member States, including France, Italy, and Poland, jointly notified the European Commission of the first battery IPCEI, providing EUR 3.2 billion in direct grants to 17 companies: Italy EUR 570 million, Poland EUR 240 million, France EUR 960 million, Belgium EUR 80 million, Finland EUR 30 million, Sweden EUR 50 million, and Germany EUR 1.25 billion.[42] In the second phase of the battery IPCEI approved by the European Commission in January 2021, France, Italy, and 10 other participating countries allocated a total of EUR 2.9 billion in state aid to 42 subsidized companies. Some of the state aid provided by Poland, Slovakia, Croatia, and Greece was supported by funding from the ERDF. The state aid from EU member states was primarily in the form of grants, with the following amounts allocated: Germany, EUR 1.5 billion; Italy, EUR 600 million; France, Croatia, and Slovakia, EUR 100 million each; Poland, EUR 20 million; Sweden and Austria, EUR 50 million each; Belgium and Greece, EUR 40 million each; Finland, EUR 10 million; and Spain, EUR 1 million. Additionally, Belgium provided state aid to relevant research institutions in the form of “repayable advances.”[43]

　　France and Germany also provided substantial specified subsidies to the battery industry. In France, as of May 2023, the “France 2030” plan provided EUR 19 million in state aid for the “Priority Research Programmes and Equipments” (PEPR) project. The “BATMAT” plan allocated EUR 15 million in state aid for 80 mature battery projects, while the “Battery Innovation Solutions and Technologies” program (in French, Solutions et Technologies pour l’Innovation des Batteries) offered EUR 79 million in state aid for 20 projects. Additionally, the “Materials Recycling Innovation Solutions” (RRR; in French, Solutions innovantes pour l’amélioration de la recyclabilité, du recyclage et de la réincorporation des matériaux) program provided EUR 30 million in state aid and injected EUR 500 million into a critical metals investment fund.[44] In January 2024, the European Commission approved EUR 902 million in state aid from Germany to Northvolt to support the construction of a clean battery factory and large-scale battery production. This subsidy includes EUR700 million in direct grants and EUR 202 million in loan guarantees.[45]

　　C. Member States’ subsidies for the photovoltaic industry have the longest duration and the largest individual amount among the “new trio” industries

　　In the EU, countries like France and Italy offer up to 20 years of price subsidies for photovoltaic power plant construction and solar energy projects, with total subsidies reaching at least EUR 23.6 billion. In September 2017, the Commission approved France’s State aid for renewable electricity production, which includes two 20-year subsidies for photovoltaic power generation amounting to EUR 4.6 billion, provided through government procurement and electricity price subsidies.[46] In July 2021, the Commission further approved a EUR 30.5 billion State aid scheme for renewable electricity production in France, allocating over EUR 11.6 billion to the photovoltaic sector.[47] In August 2021, another EUR 5.7 billion in State aid was approved in France for small photovoltaic installations on buildings, allowing those with a peak power of up to 500 kilowatts to benefit from a 20 years feed-in tariff.[48] In November 2023, the Commission approved a EUR 1.7 billion Italian State aid scheme for agrivoltaic installations, with its subsidy recipients determined through a bidding process that will allocate EUR 1.1 billion in investment grants from the RRF and EUR 560 million in two-way contracts for difference (CfD) or feed-in tariffs for 20 years. The specific forms of the subsidies will depend on the installed capacity of the recipient’s project.[49]

　　Italy and other EU member states also offer tax incentives for installing photovoltaic systems. In May 2020, Italy introduced the “110% superbonus” tax deduction for energy efficiency and seismic renovation of residential buildings, offering a tax exemption amounting to 110% of the renovation costs. There are three available tax exemption methods: (i) an income tax credit; (ii) suppliers covering the entire cost and receiving a tax exemption; and (iii) transferring the tax exemption amount to offset loans from banks or insurance companies.[50] Under this policy, the installation of residential photovoltaic systems can receive a tax credit of up to EUR 48,000.[51] Starting in 2024, Italy’s super subsidy policy will lower the tax-exempt rate to 70%.[52]

　　In the EU, investment projects aimed at producing photovoltaic cells and related components are also eligible for direct grants. For example, the European Commission approved state aid packages of EUR 1.2 billion for Poland,[53] EUR 1 billion for Portugal,[54] and EUR 520 million for Luxembourg[55] on September 17, September 27, and October 11, 2024, respectively. These funds support investments in strategic equipment production, including batteries, photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, heat pumps, electrolyzers, carbon capture, usage and storage equipment, and related essential components and critical raw materials to accelerate the transition to a net-zero economy.[56] Additionally, on October 3, 2024, the Commission again approved a EUR 1.2 billion Polish aid package to subsidize investments in energy storage facilities, further promoting the shift to a net-zero economy. [57]

　　D. Member States generally use subsidies to stimulate consumption in the electric vehicle sector

　　By 2023, all 27 EU member states had implemented at least one electric vehicle consumption subsidy policy, primarily in the form of tax incentives and grants. Germany alone allocated EUR 10 billion in subsidies for electric vehicle adoption.[58]

　　In terms of tax incentives, member states such as France, Spain, and Germany offer various tax benefits for electric vehicle consumption, including registration tax, personal income tax, and circulation tax. For example, France provides a 50% reduction on registration fees and a 100% exemption on license plate registration fees for fully electric and hybrid vehicles.[59] In June 2023, Spain introduced a 15% personal income tax reduction for the purchase of electric vehicles and charging equipment. The tax deduction applies up to EUR 20,000 for electric vehicles and EUR 4,000 for charging equipment.[60] Germany has extended its exemption from motor vehicle tax for electric vehicles multiple times between 2012 and 2023, including a 10-year circulation tax exemption introduced in 2016.[61]

　　Grants are another important means of promoting electric vehicle consumption. In May 2020, France launched an EUR 8 billion “Automotive Industry Revitalization Plan” (in French, Plan de relance pour l’industrie automobile)， which encompasses state aid for electric vehicle consumption, production, and the deployment of charging infrastructure.[62] In the area of electric vehicle consumption, the state aid takes the form of ecological subsidies for car buyers or trade-in bonuses for consumers purchasing electric or hybrid vehicles to replace diesel or gasoline cars.[63] At the local level, since 2019, 131 cities in the Paris metropolitan area have provided varying amounts of state aid to support the purchase of electric vehicles.[64] In May 2016, Germany introduced the “Government Programme for Electric Mobility” plan, providing EUR 1.2 billion in environmental bonus for the purchase of fully electric cars and plug-in hybrid vehicles, and EUR 300 million for the expansion of charging infrastructure. The environmental bonus is equally funded by the federal government and the automotive industry, with half of the subsidies given to manufacturers to reduce the car price and the other half to consumers as grants.[65] Germany provided an additional EUR 2.2 billion in environmental bonus for the purchase of electric cars and plug-in hybrid vehicles between 2020 and 2021, and invested EUR 1.2 billion in electric buses.[66]

　　Sufficient and convenient charging infrastructure is a crucial factor in promoting electric vehicle consumption. Therefore, EU member states such as France and Germany provide substantial direct grants and tax incentives for the installation of charging facilities. In 2016, France provided at least EUR 320 million in grants through the “Advenir” program to subsidize these installations.[67] France also implemented VAT incentives and tax credit policies. The VAT for home charging facilities is set at 5.5%， while the VAT for installing charging devices in buildings over two years old is 10%， and for buildings under two years old, it is 20%. Additionally, from 2021 to 2023, buyers of charging devices can benefit from a special tax credit of up to EUR 300 for purchasing and installing these facilities.[68] While in German, in July 2022, the German federal government established the Climate and Transformation Fund (KTF)， using the national budget to support energy transition and climate protection from 2023 to 2026.[69] In October 2022, Germany’s Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport approved a charging infrastructure subsidy plan, fully supported by the fund, with a budget of EUR 630 million covering 68 specific measures. In June 2023, the ministry allocated EUR 900 million to improve the subsidy plan, with EUR 500 million dedicated to private charging stations and EUR 400 million to commercial ones.[70]

　　III. EU’s substantial subsidies for the “new trio” show significant impact but risk distorting global market

　　Under the banner of green transition, support for underdeveloped regions, and the development of specific industries, EU funds and Member States’ State aid provide dual financial backing for the implementation of subsidies. Various incentives, including grants, tax exemptions, price subsidies, and preferential loans, work together to advance the EU’s true objective: seizing development opportunities and asserting leadership in the global competition within the “new trio” sectors.

　　A variety of subsidies has enabled rapid development of the EU’s “new trio” industries. The battery industry received at least EUR 1.7 billion in grants and loan guarantees from the EU budget between 2014 and 2020. Since 2019, EU member states have provided over EUR 6.57 billion in state aid through IPCEI and regional aid programs.[71] With dual subsidy support, the EU now hosts 10 gigafactories and 20 under-construction plants for battery production, meeting two-thirds of the EU’s market demand for batteries.[72] From 2022 to 2023, the EU’s share of global lithium battery exports grew from 28.2% to 30.3%.[73] In the photovoltaic sector, EU funds and state aid totaled at least EUR 8.6 billion and EUR 23.6 billion, respectively. These subsidies drove over 40% annual growth in photovoltaic installations from 2021 to 2023,[74] while EU solar panel exports rose 19% in value and 37% in quantity from 2022 to 2023.[75] In the electric vehicle sector, EU funds and state aid reached at least EUR 22 billion and EUR 10.8 billion, respectively. By 2023, the EU surpassed 630,000 public charging points, with an 84% increase in DC chargers.[76] EU electric vehicle exports also surged to EUR 22.3 billion in 2022, marking a 100% increase from 2021 and a 400% rise from 2019.[77]

　　In conclusion, the EU “new trio” subsidies, which take various forms, are both specified and substantial. Numerous initiatives have benefited from EU funds or State aids, with subsidies accounting for over half of their total budgets. These subsidies have achieved initial success in promoting the development of the EU’s “new trio” industries. However, as these subsidies grow in scale and scope, along with the EU’s increasing export competitiveness, they are likely to distort the foreign and even the global markets.

　　參考文獻

　　[1]Primary data sources include official statistical reports from the European Commission, subsidy notifications submitted by the EU to the WTO, and publications by EU member state governments or public agencies.